Bonfoey, Mark. "Focus on Performance: Percussion Instrument Repair: Introduction to the Snare Drum." Percussive Notes. 26.1 (1987): 33-34.

The replacement of snare drum heads and step-by-step instructions of how to tune the new drumhead. Figures: diagram of parts of a snare drum and diagram of the pattern of symmetrical drum tuning. (Background information for non-percussionists and through step-by-step tuning instructions.)

Bonfoey, Mark. Percussion Repair and Maintenance: A Performer’s Technical Manual. Miami: Belwin-Mills Publishing Corporation, 1986. (p. 32-40)

Keeping drumheads clean, snare adjustment, fitting gut snares, snare strainer throw-off, snare isolation, tuning the snare drum, maintaining a properly tuned snare drum, parts of a snare drum, tuning groups of drums, typical applications of types of drumheads, drumhead tension suggestions, internal mutes, external mutes, and replacing a snare drum head. Figures: diagrams of the correct placement of snares and the effects of mutes on drum sound. (Excellent information and the diagrams are very helpful.)

Campbell, Murray and Clive Greated. The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics. New York: Schirmer Books, 1987. (p. 410-429)

The acoustics and vibrations of circular membranes, why drumheads are inharmonic, why some drumheads produce a definite pitch, the normal modes of a circular membrane, an explanation of modes, i.e. (1,2), the resonant frequencies of an ideal undampened drumhead, using modes in a frequency equation, the effect of air damping on real drumheads, how air makes a drumhead a part of the harmonic series, the effect of the drum body on mode tuning (timpani), the nominal pitch of a drum (timpani), the importance of striking positions, history and role of kettledrums, the decay time of a kettledrum note, the tone quality of a kettledrum, striking positions and the effects of mutes on the drumhead (timpani), the history of machine and pedal timpani, the effects of the hole in the bottom of pedal timpani shells, the acoustics of the bass drum, the acoustics of the snare drum, and the effects of the snares on the sound of the snare drum. Figures: diagram of a struck drumhead before and after impact, diagram of first 12 normal modes of an ideal undampened drumhead, diagram of how drumhead vibrations affect the surrounding air, and various diagrams of striking points and modes on a drumhead. (Excellent information on percussion acoustics that is presented in a well-explained and easy to understand format with useful diagrams.)

Collison, C. "First Aid for the Concert Snare Drum: Problems and Solutions." Percussive Notes. 31.1 (1992): 32-35.

Common snare drum maintenance and repair problems and solutions, heads tuned to maximum tension, tone controls and other dampening too tightly tensioned, snare strainers fully tensioned, improper drumheads on drum, Ludwig "Super Sensitive" snare strainer overly tensioned, ripped or torn bottom snare head, snare drum responsive only at loud volumes, drum sounds bad even with new head and tuned properly, percussionist uses only wire snares, rim (or counter hoop) pulled below bearing edge of shell, tension rods don’t turn easily and are at an angle to the lugs, string on snare unit is broken, problems with snare strainer adjustment, and snares not working properly. Figures: diagram of Ludwig "Super Sensitive" snare strainer shows how the unit is assembled. (Thorough explanations of solutions to problems that would be helpful to mainly non-percussionists.)

Fletcher, Neville H. and Thomas D. Rossing. The Physics of Musical Instruments. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1991. (p. 69-70)

The acoustical equations of circular membranes, the wave equation for circular membranes, Bessel functions/equations, equation for converting modes into frequencies, and the effects of air- loading, bending stiffness, and stiffness to shear on real membranes and frequencies. Figures: diagram of first 14 natural modes of an ideal membrane and their relative frequencies. (Very complex mathematical material with formulas, equations, etc. that doesn’t practically apply to the percussionist.)

Gatzen, Bob. "Tuning Tips." 26 June 1998. http://daddario.com/tuning/home.html (30 June 1998).

Preparation of the drum before replacing the old head with a new one, tuning the drum, stretching the drumhead, and detuning or tuning up to pitch. Figures: diagrams of symmetrical drum tunings. (Some good information, but much like other drum tuning web sites.)

Hall, Donald E. Musical Acoustics: An Introduction. California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1980. (p. 156-164)

The vibrations of a continuous membrane, nodal lines and natural modes, equation for fundamental frequency of a membrane alone without any air-loading effects, why drumhead vibrations generally don’t sound musical, finding the same natural modes of a drumhead on cymbals, gongs, church bells, and orchestra chimes, vibration recipes, vibrations caused by striking a drumhead, why different striking positions excite different certain modes and not others, why an actual pitch can be obtained from timpani, why the center of drumheads give a dull thud, and vibrations caused by striking a drumhead. Figures: diagram of first 10 modes of an ideal membrane, pictures of a rubber membrane vibrating in 4 different modes, and various diagrams of different striking positions. (Useful information and diagrams, but wordy and overly complicated.)

Howie, Tomas. "Tuning." 4 April 1998. http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/9870/drumtuning.htm (30 June 1998).

Basics of drum tuning, drum cleaning and maintenance, tuning new drum heads, tuning of the shell, pitch of the opposite head, relative pitch of drum heads, characteristics of specific drum heads, muffling recommendations, and special effects. (Very in depth and applies mostly to drumset.)

Mattingly, Rick. "Remo Renaissance Drumheads." Modern Drummer. 22.7 (July 1998): 43-45.

Review of Remo "Renaissance" drumheads, tom-tom, snare batter, bass drum, and prices. (A favorable review that cites some of the tonal characteristics of the drumheads.)

Miller, William F. "Evans G1 and G2 Coated Drumheads." Modern Drummer. 21.10 (October 1997): 48-49.

Review of Evans "G1 and G2 Coated" drumheads. (Heads were tested on drumset tom-toms only but it does cite some of the tonal characteristics of the drumheads.)

Moore, J.L. "A Selective Bibliography of Material Pertaining to the Acoustics of Percussion Instruments." Percussionist. 7.1 (1969): 23-26.

A thorough bibliography of reference materials and articles pertaining to percussion acoustics. (Bibliography goes only through 1969.)

Moore, J.L. "Percussion Acoustics: An Introductory Evaluation." Percussionist. 5.1 (1967): 218-220.

Concerns to consider when studying percussion tones and acoustics. (Article is mainly a call for more research on percussion acoustics and describes why percussion acoustics are important.)

Moore, J.L. "Percussion Acoustics: Some Basic Considerations." Percussionist. 6.3 (1969): 86-89.

Acoustical characteristics of membranes, timpani, bass drum, snare drum, wide solid autophone instruments (cymbals, gongs, wood blocks, temple blocks), bar autophone instruments (marimba, xylophone, vibes, orchestra bells, chimes), and tuning of bar instruments. Figures: diagram of how rounding of bars affects its partials. (Introduction to and basic information on the characteristics of percussion instruments and acoustics.)

Nolly, L. Drum Tuning: A Comprehensive Guide to Tuning Drums. Wilmington: Drumstix Publishing, 1994.

What is tuning, types of heads, mounting heads, getting heads in tune with themselves, finding the proper tension, relative tension, the top and bottom head relationship, tuning the drumset, snare drum, snare drum muffling, mounted, concert, floor, and roto toms, tom holders, bass drum, bass drum muffling, holes in front bass drum head, and muffling. Figures: diagrams of symmetrical tuning and muffling on snare and bass drum. (An in depth discussion with step-by-step instructions that covers most every aspect of tuning drums.)

Nolly, L. "Shop Talk: Taking the Mystery Out of Tuning." Modern Drummer. 13 (October 1989): 44-49.

Includes step-by-step instructions for making sure the drumhead is in tune with itself, steps to finding the proper drumhead tension, the relative tension of drumheads on two-headed drums, step-by-step instructions for tuning and muffling a drumset bass drum, and instructions on how to put a hole in the front head of a drumset bass drum. Figures: diagrams of 3 different symmetrical drum tuning patterns and diagrams of drumset bass drum muffling. (Useful information for drumset players and percussionists and includes some details on proper tuning and tension.)

Noonan, J. "The Perfect Concert Snare Drum." Percussive Notes. 14.1 (1975): 40-41.

Discusses many of the variables that go into producing the perfect concert snare drum sound, and gives opinions on each variable. (Thorough and detailed list of variables and useful personal preferences.)

Press, A. "Orchestral Percussionist: The Concert Snare Drum." Modern Percussionist. 1.1 (1984-1985): 26-27.

Concerns to consider when trying to achieve a good concert snare drum sound, some opinions on snare drum sounds and equipment for particular pieces, stick choice and how sticks affect the sound of the snare drum sound and fundamental tone, and choosing snares and muffling. (Mainly personal opinions, but through list of things to consider.)

Ptaszynka, M. "Tonal Control of Indefinite Pitch Percussion Instruments." Percussionist. 18.1 (1980): 4-7.

The "hidden tonality" of indefinite pitch percussion instruments and the use of specified intervals in indefinite percussion pieces. Figures: visual representations of the intervalic relationships discussed on musical staves. (Useful to composers scoring for percussion instruments.)

Remo, Inc. "Drumhead Tuning Tips From the Industry Professionals." 1997. http://www.remo.com/drumbeat/drumhead%20tuning.htm (30 June 1998).

Design of Remo drumheads, head replacement suggestions of professionals, preparing the drum before replacing the old head with a new one, seating the head, tuning tips, and fine tuning. Figures: diagrams of symmetrical drum tunings. (Mainly on how to tune Remo heads, but some good tuning information.)

Rossing, Thomas D. "Acoustics of Drums." Physics Today. 45 (March 1992): 40-47.

The equation for the normal mode frequency of an ideal circular membrane, the acoustics of two-headed drums, the formula for a two-mass model, description of methods used in testing and modal analysis, scanning the near-field sound, Chladni pattern generation, holographic interferometry, modal analysis, acoustical properties of the drum shell, acoustical characteristics of timpani, effects that contribute to the inharmonic modes of an ideal circular membrane shifting in frequency to achieve prominent harmonic partials, air-loading effects on timpani heads, bass drum acoustics, and the acoustics of the Indian tabla and mrdanga. Figures: diagram of first 12 modes of an ideal membrane and their frequencies and diagrams and pictures of drum shell and drum head resonances. (Somewhat mathematically complex, but the information is understandable and practical to drum acoustics and tuning, as well as a section solely on snare drum.)

Rossing, Thomas D. "Acoustics of Percussion Instruments." Percussionist. 19.3 (1982): 6-83.

Acoustics of Bar Percussion Instruments: vibrations of bars, rectangular bars, glockenspiel, marimba, resonators, xylophone, vibraphone, triangles, and chimes. Acoustics of Timpani: vibrations of membranes, history of timpani, membrane stiffness, air-loading, timpani sound, radiation, dampening, effect of the kettle, modes of the air in the kettle, effect of the vent hole on modal frequencies and decay times, adjusting and measuring tension, tuning the timpani, and the timpani in a helium atmosphere. Vibrations of Plates, Gongs, and Cymbals: vibrations of plates, gongs, tam-tams, modes of vibration, sound spectra, cymbals, church bells, and hand bells. Chimes and Bells: chimes, bells, and hand bells. Vibration and Sound of the Bass Drum: description and comparison of bass drums and sounds, vibrations of the bass drum, and the sound of the bass drum. Acoustics of Indian Drums: construction of the tabla and mrdanga, modes of vibration, sound spectra of a mrdanga, and air-loading a mrdanga head. Nonlinear Effects in Percussion Instruments: linear and nonlinear vibrations, nonlinear vibrations in plates, Chinese opera gongs, tam-tams, and drums. Acoustics of Gamelan Instruments: Indonesian music, scales and tuning, the metallophones, and gongs. Figures: many excellent pictures, charts, diagrams, and graphs of many of the different percussion instruments discussed. (Extremely in depth and informative.)

Rossing, Thomas D. The Science of Sound. Massachusetts. Addison-Wesley Publications Company, 1983. (p. 257-285)

Vibrations of bars, rectangular bars, glockenspiel, marimba, xylophone, vibes, chimes, triangles, vibrations of membranes, timpani, bass drum, snare drum, tom-toms, bongos, congas, tabla, mrdanga, vibrations of plates, cymbals, gongs, tam-tams, steel drums, bells, carillon, and hand bells. Figures: Many useful pictures, diagrams, and charts concerning many of the instruments.) (Sometimes mathematically complex, but understandable and includes much of the same material in the articles.)

Taylor, C.A. Sounds of Music. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1976. (p. 8-36)

Sound waves, visualizing sound waves, characteristics of simple sounds, facts and figures concerning acoustics and sound, frequency and octaves, music and noise, sounds from rotating objects, sounds from electrical oscillation, sounds from mechanical oscillation of a single vibrator, sounds of different pitch from one vibrator (smooth changes and sudden jumps), patterns of modes of vibration, harmonics, modes of vibration, the start of a note, simple vibrators, added complications of real instruments, studying the first split second of a note, and striking bells and drums. Figures: some useful pictures, diagrams, and charts of subjects discussed. (Mainly on the general characteristics of sound production.)

Watson, R. "Modern Drummer’s Guide to Drumset Tuning." Modern Drummer. 18 (March 1994): 30-35.

Sound components, parts of the drums, the playing environment, head selection, uncoated heads, coated heads, dot-reinforced heads, damping-ring heads, fabric and mylar laminated heads, vented heads, double-ply heads, hydraulic heads, maximum durability heads, snare-side heads, tom-tom bottom heads, front bass drum heads, head condition, checking the bearing edge, seating the head, general tuning, uniform versus varied lug tensioning, specific drum tuning and tuning relationships, bass drum, snare drum, snare drum buzz, tom-toms, studio drum sounds, drum sound projection, shells, counter hoops, hardware, and muffling. Figures: diagrams of 3 symmetrical drum tunings. (A thorough discussion of drum tuning, applied mainly to the drumset, but the information can be easily applied to all drums.)

Weinberg, Norman. "A Visual Window to Tone Production." Percussive Notes. 29.5 (June 1991): 20-25.

Technical specifications of research, visual information, woodblocks, triangles, cymbals, and timpani. Figures: spectragraphs and charts showing visual representations of sounds sampled, including 3-D computer program models. (The research is concerned mainly with the visual representation of sounds of various percussion instruments. Shows the effective use of computer software programs dealing with spectra, etc.)

Wheeler, D. "Focus on Research: Some Experiments Concerning the Effect of Snares on the Snare Drum Sound." Percussive Notes. 27.4 (1989): 48-52.

The effect of snares on the overall sound of the snare drum, research equipment and procedure, and engaging the snares does not affect the location of the fundamental of the snare drum. Figures: spectragraphs and charts of recorded sounds and diagrams of how the equipment was set up during the research. (Although it deals with tones from snare units, the article is pertinent to the methodology for our research.)

Back to Main Page